IIRC the problematic chemicals basically either molecularly large organic solids that will precipitate out, or something that will convert to ammonia on exposure to air (which evaporates much more quickly than water). urine is actually rather easy to filter if you don't mind residual taste.
"Water, water, everywhere, and not a drop to drink." isn't just dramatic, it's because drinking your fill of seawater when dehydrated is a death sentence. This means that if you drink seawater it will actually forcibly suck more water out of your body through your kidneys as they try to expel the excess salt than you drank in the first place. Given this and human blood's maximum survival salinity there is a limit to how salty urine can be. The membranes in the human kidney can only prevent water transfer up to a certain differential in concentration by actively fighting osmosis.
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